Temperature After oxygen, water temperature may be the single most important factor affecting the welfare of fish. Fish are cold-blooded organisms and assume approximately the same temperature as their surroundings. The temperature of the water affects the activity, behavior, feeding, growth, and reproduction of all fishes. Metabolic rates in fish double for each 18ºF rise in temperature. Fish are generally categorized into warmwater, coolwater, and coldwater species based on optimal growth temperatures (Figure 3).
Figure 3. General temperature ranges for coldwater, coolwater, and warmwater species.
1. 55-65ºF - Coldwater
2. 65-75ºF - Coolwater
3. 75-90ºF - Warmwater
Channel catfish and tilapia are examples of warmwater species. Their temperature range for growth is between 75-90ºF. A temperature of 85ºF for catfish and 87ºF for tilapia is considered optimum. Walleye, and yellow perch are examples of coolwater species. Ranges for optimum growth fall between 60º and 85ºF. Temperatures in the upper end of this range are considered best for maximum growth for most coolwater species. Coldwater species include all species of salmon and trout. The most commonly cultured coldwater species in the Midwest is rainbow trout, whose optimal temperature range for growth is 48-65ºF. Ideally, species selection should be based in part on the temperature of the water supply. Any attempt to match a fish with less than ideal temperatures will involve energy expenditures for heating or cooling. This added expense will subsequently increase production costs.
Temperature also determines the amount of dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc.) in the water. The cooler the water the more soluble the gas. Temperature plays a major role in the physical process called thermal stratification . As mentioned earlier, water has a high-heat capacity and unique density qualities. Water has its maximum density at 39.2ºF. In spring, water temperatures are nearly equal at all pond depths. As a result, nutrients, dissolved gases, and fish wastes are evenly mixed throughout the pond. As the days become warmer, the surface water becomes warmer and lighter while the cooler-denser water forms a layer underneath. Circulation of the colder bottom water is prevented because of the different densities between the two layers of water. Dissolved oxygen levels decrease in the bottom layer since photosynthesis and contact with the air is reduced. The already low oxygen levels are further reduced through decomposition of waste products, which settle to the pond bottom. Localized dissolved oxygen depletion poses a very real problem to the fish farmer.
Real Media presentation of seasonal changes of water temperatures which occurs in fish ponds. In spring, temperatures and dissolved oxygen are uniform throughout the pond. During the summer, stratification may occur and create an upper layer of water with high-dissolved oxygen and lower layer with low-dissolved oxygen. After a rain or when a phytoplankton die-off occurs the water may turnover.
Summer stratification is a greater problem for fish raised in deeper farm ponds. Stratification may last for several weeks. This condition may develop into a major fish kill when sudden summer rains occur. These rains will cool the warmer upper layer of water enough to allow it to mix with the oxygen poor layer below. Decomposing materials in the oxygen-poor layer are again mixed evenly throughout the pond, resulting in an overall reduction in the dissolved oxygen level. Fish previously able to avoid the oxygen depleted layer are now susceptible to low-dissolved oxygen syndrome and possibly death. Ice is another physical factor directly related to temperature. Normally, ice cover does not impede photosynthesis. Fish consume less oxygen at colder temperatures, greatly reducing the overall oxygen demand. But fish can still suffer from low-dissolved oxygen under snow covered ice. Under extended ice cover, other gases (carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, etc.) can build up to dangerously high levels. Mechanical aeration is probably the most reliable way of preventing an ice buildup by keeping large areas of the pond free of ice.
Suspended Solids
Suspended solids is a term usually associated with plankton, fish wastes, uneaten fish feeds, or clay particles suspended in the water. Suspended solids are large particles which usually settle out of standing water through time. Large clay particles are an exception. Clay particles (which will be discussed again) are kept in suspension because of the negative electrical charges associated with them.
Plankton
Turbidity caused by phytoplankton (microscopic plants) and zooplankton (microscopic animals) is not directly harmful to fish. Phytoplankton (green algae) not only produces oxygen, but also provides a food source for zooplankton and filter feeding fish/shellfish. Phytoplankton also uses ammonia produced by fish as a nutrient source. Zooplankton is a very important food source for fry and fingerlings such as hybrid striped bass and yellow perch. However, excessive amounts of algae can lead to increased rates of respiration during the night thereby consuming extra oxygen. Excessive phytoplankton buildups or "blooms" which subsequently die will also consumes extra oxygen. Any wide swings between day and night oxygen levels can lead to dangerously low oxygen concentrations.
Fish wastes
Suspended fish wastes are a serious concern for water recirculating culture systems. Large amounts of suspended and settleable solids are produced during fish production. As a rule, one pound of fish waste is produced for every pound of fish produced. Fish waste particles can be a major source of poor water quality since they may contain up to 70 percent of the nitrogen load in the system. These wastes not only irritate the fish's gills, but can cause several problems to the biological filter. The particulate waste can clog the biological filter, causing the vitrifying bacteria to die from lack of oxygen. Particulate waste can also promote the growth of bacteria that produces--rather than consumes ammonia.
Clay
Most clay turbidity problems are the result of exposed soil on the pond levee, exposed watershed, crayfish activity, or feeding of bottom dwelling species such as carp and catfish. Turbidity levels exceeding 20,000 ppm can cause behavioral changes in fish. In natural bodies of water, turbidity values seldom exceed these critical levels. Even "muddy looking" ponds rarely have concentrations greater than 2,000 ppm.
Turbidity caused by clay or soil particles, however, can restrict light penetration and limit photosynthesis. Sedimentation of soil particles may also smother fish eggs and destroy beneficial communities of bottom organisms such as bacteria. Removal of clay turbidity can be accomplished by adding materials that attach to the negative charges of the clay particles, forming particles heavy enough to settle to the bottom. Common remedies for clay turbidity are 7-10 square bales of hay per surface acre, or 300-500 pounds of gypsum per surface acre. Gypsum applications may be repeated at two week intervals if ponds do not clear.
Figure 3. General temperature ranges for coldwater, coolwater, and warmwater species.
1. 55-65ºF - Coldwater
2. 65-75ºF - Coolwater
3. 75-90ºF - Warmwater
Channel catfish and tilapia are examples of warmwater species. Their temperature range for growth is between 75-90ºF. A temperature of 85ºF for catfish and 87ºF for tilapia is considered optimum. Walleye, and yellow perch are examples of coolwater species. Ranges for optimum growth fall between 60º and 85ºF. Temperatures in the upper end of this range are considered best for maximum growth for most coolwater species. Coldwater species include all species of salmon and trout. The most commonly cultured coldwater species in the Midwest is rainbow trout, whose optimal temperature range for growth is 48-65ºF. Ideally, species selection should be based in part on the temperature of the water supply. Any attempt to match a fish with less than ideal temperatures will involve energy expenditures for heating or cooling. This added expense will subsequently increase production costs.
Temperature also determines the amount of dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc.) in the water. The cooler the water the more soluble the gas. Temperature plays a major role in the physical process called thermal stratification . As mentioned earlier, water has a high-heat capacity and unique density qualities. Water has its maximum density at 39.2ºF. In spring, water temperatures are nearly equal at all pond depths. As a result, nutrients, dissolved gases, and fish wastes are evenly mixed throughout the pond. As the days become warmer, the surface water becomes warmer and lighter while the cooler-denser water forms a layer underneath. Circulation of the colder bottom water is prevented because of the different densities between the two layers of water. Dissolved oxygen levels decrease in the bottom layer since photosynthesis and contact with the air is reduced. The already low oxygen levels are further reduced through decomposition of waste products, which settle to the pond bottom. Localized dissolved oxygen depletion poses a very real problem to the fish farmer.
Real Media presentation of seasonal changes of water temperatures which occurs in fish ponds. In spring, temperatures and dissolved oxygen are uniform throughout the pond. During the summer, stratification may occur and create an upper layer of water with high-dissolved oxygen and lower layer with low-dissolved oxygen. After a rain or when a phytoplankton die-off occurs the water may turnover.
Summer stratification is a greater problem for fish raised in deeper farm ponds. Stratification may last for several weeks. This condition may develop into a major fish kill when sudden summer rains occur. These rains will cool the warmer upper layer of water enough to allow it to mix with the oxygen poor layer below. Decomposing materials in the oxygen-poor layer are again mixed evenly throughout the pond, resulting in an overall reduction in the dissolved oxygen level. Fish previously able to avoid the oxygen depleted layer are now susceptible to low-dissolved oxygen syndrome and possibly death. Ice is another physical factor directly related to temperature. Normally, ice cover does not impede photosynthesis. Fish consume less oxygen at colder temperatures, greatly reducing the overall oxygen demand. But fish can still suffer from low-dissolved oxygen under snow covered ice. Under extended ice cover, other gases (carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane, etc.) can build up to dangerously high levels. Mechanical aeration is probably the most reliable way of preventing an ice buildup by keeping large areas of the pond free of ice.
Suspended Solids
Suspended solids is a term usually associated with plankton, fish wastes, uneaten fish feeds, or clay particles suspended in the water. Suspended solids are large particles which usually settle out of standing water through time. Large clay particles are an exception. Clay particles (which will be discussed again) are kept in suspension because of the negative electrical charges associated with them.
Plankton
Turbidity caused by phytoplankton (microscopic plants) and zooplankton (microscopic animals) is not directly harmful to fish. Phytoplankton (green algae) not only produces oxygen, but also provides a food source for zooplankton and filter feeding fish/shellfish. Phytoplankton also uses ammonia produced by fish as a nutrient source. Zooplankton is a very important food source for fry and fingerlings such as hybrid striped bass and yellow perch. However, excessive amounts of algae can lead to increased rates of respiration during the night thereby consuming extra oxygen. Excessive phytoplankton buildups or "blooms" which subsequently die will also consumes extra oxygen. Any wide swings between day and night oxygen levels can lead to dangerously low oxygen concentrations.
Fish wastes
Suspended fish wastes are a serious concern for water recirculating culture systems. Large amounts of suspended and settleable solids are produced during fish production. As a rule, one pound of fish waste is produced for every pound of fish produced. Fish waste particles can be a major source of poor water quality since they may contain up to 70 percent of the nitrogen load in the system. These wastes not only irritate the fish's gills, but can cause several problems to the biological filter. The particulate waste can clog the biological filter, causing the vitrifying bacteria to die from lack of oxygen. Particulate waste can also promote the growth of bacteria that produces--rather than consumes ammonia.
Clay
Most clay turbidity problems are the result of exposed soil on the pond levee, exposed watershed, crayfish activity, or feeding of bottom dwelling species such as carp and catfish. Turbidity levels exceeding 20,000 ppm can cause behavioral changes in fish. In natural bodies of water, turbidity values seldom exceed these critical levels. Even "muddy looking" ponds rarely have concentrations greater than 2,000 ppm.
Turbidity caused by clay or soil particles, however, can restrict light penetration and limit photosynthesis. Sedimentation of soil particles may also smother fish eggs and destroy beneficial communities of bottom organisms such as bacteria. Removal of clay turbidity can be accomplished by adding materials that attach to the negative charges of the clay particles, forming particles heavy enough to settle to the bottom. Common remedies for clay turbidity are 7-10 square bales of hay per surface acre, or 300-500 pounds of gypsum per surface acre. Gypsum applications may be repeated at two week intervals if ponds do not clear.
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